Research article | Open Access
Journal of Research in Education and Teaching 2026, Vol. 15(1) 1-17
Panel Data Analysis of the Relationship Between Digital Infrastructure and Access to Higher Education in OECD Countries
pp. 1 - 17
Publish Date: June 30, 2026 | Single/Total View: 0/0 | Single/Total Download: 0/0
Abstract
The aim of this study is to empirically examine the impact of the level of digital infrastructure on access to higher education in OECD countries. Digital infrastructure is represented by indicators such as the percentage of individuals using the internet, the density of secure internet servers, and per capita gross domestic product. Access to higher education is considered in two dimensions. The higher education enrollment rate, which indicates the overall level of participation, and the gender equality index, which represents equal opportunity, are the dependent variables of the study. Data from the period 2010–2024 were used in the study, and 37 OECD countries were included. Analyses were performed using the STATA 17.0 statistical program, employing the Driscoll–Kraay robust standard errors approach from panel data methods. This method was preferred because it addresses the problems of heteroskedasticity, autocorrelation, and cross-sectional dependence. Model 1 considered the higher education enrollment rate as the dependent variable. The findings showed that internet usage, secure internet servers, and R&D expenditures had positive and statistically significant effects on participation in higher education. In contrast, the coefficient for GDP per capita was found to be negative and significant. This finding suggests that it may be related to individuals' tendencies to enter the labor force at an earlier age or pursue alternative educational paths as economic well-being increases. Model 2 examined the gender equality index in higher education as the dependent variable. In this model, digital infrastructure indicators, R&D expenditures, and per capita income all showed positive and significant effects. In particular, the high correlation coefficient for R&D expenditures suggests that innovative and research-oriented educational environments may be closely linked to women’s participation in higher education. Overall, the findings suggest that digital transformation is positively associated with indicators of social inclusion and equal opportunity in education and can therefore be considered an important component of development.
Keywords: Digital infrastructure, higher education, gender equality, panel data, Driscoll-Kraay
APA 7th edition
Akyol, B., Ozden, A.S., & Karamanlioglu, I. (2026). Panel Data Analysis of the Relationship Between Digital Infrastructure and Access to Higher Education in OECD Countries. Journal of Research in Education and Teaching, 15(1), 1-17.
Harvard
Akyol, B., Ozden, A. and Karamanlioglu, I. (2026). Panel Data Analysis of the Relationship Between Digital Infrastructure and Access to Higher Education in OECD Countries. Journal of Research in Education and Teaching, 15(1), pp. 1-17.
Chicago 16th edition
Akyol, Bertan, Afet Sozen Ozden and Ibrahim Karamanlioglu (2026). "Panel Data Analysis of the Relationship Between Digital Infrastructure and Access to Higher Education in OECD Countries". Journal of Research in Education and Teaching 15 (1):1-17.
Acedo, S. O., & Osuna, S. M. T. (2016). ECO European project: inclusive education through accessible MOOCs. [Conference paper]. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (p. 881-886). Association for Computing Machinery, New York.
Altunoğlu, A. (2020). Yükseköğretimde kapsayıcılığın uygulanabilirliği üzerine bir tartışma. OPUS–Uluslararası Toplum Araştırmaları Dergisi, 16(27), 672-699. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.755015
Bates, T. (2010). New challenges for universities: Why they must change. D. Schneckenberg & U. D. Ehlers (Eds.), In Changing cultures in higher education (pp. 15-25). Springer.
Becker, G. S. (1964) Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. University of Chicago Press.
Burbules, N. C. & Callister, T. A. (2000). Watch IT: The risks and promises of information technologies for education. Westview.
Castells, M. (2010). Globalisation, networking, urbanisation: Reflections on the spatial dynamics of the information age. Urban studies, 47(13), 2737-2745. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098010377365
Chelovechkova, A., Adamenko, Y. V. & Medvedev, A. A. (2021). Digital transformation of education as overcoming the global digital inequality within the framework of sustainable development of civilization. [Conference paper]. In Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference on Sustainable Development of Regional Infrastructure (ISSDRI 2021) (pp. 696-700). Kurgan State University, SciTePress. https://doi.org/10.5220/0010596106960700
Cross J. (2010). They had people called professors…! Changing worlds of learning: Strengthening informal learning in formal institutions? U. D. Ehlers & D. Schneckenberg (Eds.), In Changing Cultures in Higher Education (pp. 43-54), Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03582-1_4
Eurostudent (2012). Report on Quality Assurance in Eurostudent IV. https://www.eurostudent.eu/download_files/documents/QA_Report_WP6_240212.pdf
EuroStudent (2018). Eurostudent VI: Overview and selected findings. https://www.eurostudent.eu/download_files/documents/EUROSTUDENT_VI_short_report.pdf
Gilbert, J. (2005). Catching the knowledge wave? The knowledge society and the future of education. New Zealand Council for Educational Research.
Hendricks, W., & Olawale, B.E. (2022). Bridging the gender-based digital divide: Empowerment of women through ICT. Tenth Pan-Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning. https://doi.org/10.56059/pcf10.9136
McArthur, J. (2013). Rethinking knowledge within higher education: Adorno and social justice. A&C Black.
Norris, P. (2001). Digital divide: Civic engagement, information poverty, and the internet worldwide. Cambridge University Press.
Orr, D., Weller, M. & Farrow, R. (2018). Models for online, open, flexible and technology enhanced higher education across the globe – a comparative analysis. International Council for Distance Education. https://icde.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Models-report-April-2018_final.pdf
Parlak, B. (2017). Dijital çağda eğitim: Olanaklar ve uygulamalar üzerine bir analiz. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 22 (Kayfor15 Özel Sayısı), 1741-1759. https://izlik.org/JA79UC39JW
Polyakova, A. Y. (2022). Digital transformation of mathematical education as overcoming the digital gap. Informatics in School 2 , 4-17. https://doi.org/10.32517/2221-1993-2022-21-2-4-17.
Schaffert, S. (2010). Strategic integration of open educational resources in higher education. D. Schneckenberg & U. D. Ehlers (Eds.), In Changing Cultures in higher education. (pp. 119-131). Springer.
Selwyn, N. (2022). Education and technology: Key issues and debates. (3rd Edition). New York: Bloomsbury Academic.
Süel, H. (2023) Eğitimde fırsat eşitliğinin yolu dijitalleşmeden geçiyor. Ekonomim. https://www.ekonomim.com/kose-yazisi/egitimde-firsat-esitliginin-yolu-dijitallesmeden-geciyor/704075
UNESCO (2002). Forum on the impact of Open Courseware for higher education in developing countries final report. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000128515
UNESCO (2020). Global education monitoring report 2020: inclusion and education, all means. France: UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373724
van Dijk, J. A. (2006). Digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. Poetics, 34(4-5), 221-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2006.05.004
van Dijk, J. (2020). The network society (4th ed.). Sage.
Warschauer, M. (2003). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. The MIT Press.
Williamson, B. (2017). Big data in education: The digital future of learning, policy and practice. Londra: SAGE Publications.
Yalın, Y. (2023). Eğitim teknolojileri, eğitimde fırsat eşitliği sağlıyor mu? Construvtor Tech. https://www.advancity.com.tr/post/egitim-teknolojileri-egitimde-firsat-esitligi-sagliyormu
Yerdelen-Tatoğlu, F. (2018). Panel Veri Ekonometrisi. (4. Baskı). İstanbu: Beta Basım Yayım Dağıtım A.Ş.
Zhao, B. X. (2023). Educational inequality: The role of digital learning resources. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media 7 (1), 634-642. https://doi.org/10.54254/2753- 7048/7/2022980
